Networking Working Group P. Levis Internet-Draft Stanford University Intended status: Informational A. Tavakoli Expires: February 6, 2009 S. Dawson-Haggerty UC Berkeley August 5, 2008 Overview of Existing Routing Protocols for Low Power and Lossy Networks draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 Status of this Memo By submitting this Internet-Draft, each author represents that any applicable patent or other IPR claims of which he or she is aware have been or will be disclosed, and any of which he or she becomes aware will be disclosed, in accordance with Section 6 of BCP 79. Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), its areas, and its working groups. Note that other groups may also distribute working documents as Internet- Drafts. Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference material or to cite them other than as "work in progress." The list of current Internet-Drafts can be accessed at http://www.ietf.org/ietf/1id-abstracts.txt. The list of Internet-Draft Shadow Directories can be accessed at http://www.ietf.org/shadow.html. This Internet-Draft will expire on February 6, 2009. Abstract Networks of low power wireless devices introduce novel IP routing issues. Low-power wireless devices, such as sensors, actuators and smart objects, have difficult constraints: very limited memory, little processing power, and long sleep periods. As most of these devices are battery-powered, energy efficiency is critically important. Wireless link qualities can vary significantly over time, requiring protocols to make agile decisions yet minimize topology change energy costs. Routing over such low power and lossy networks has requirements that existing mesh protocols only partially address. This document provides a brief survey of the strengths and weaknesses Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 1] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 of existing protocols with respect to this class of networks. It provides guidance on how lessons from existing and prior efforts can be leveraged in future protocol design. Requirements Language The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT", "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in RFC 2119 [RFC2119]. Table of Contents 1. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3. Suitability Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3.1. Formal Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.2. Table Scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.3. Loss Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3.4. Control Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3.5. Link and Node Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4. Routing Protocol Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5. Link State Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5.1. OSPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5.2. OLSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 5.3. TBRPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 6. Distance Vector protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 6.1. RIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 6.2. DSDV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 6.3. Ad-hoc On Demand Vector Routing (AODV) . . . . . . . . . . 12 6.4. DYMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 6.5. DSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 7. Neighbor Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 7.1. IPv6 Neighbor Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 7.2. MANET-NHDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 8. Security Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 9. Manageability Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 10. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 11. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 12. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 13. Annex A - Routing protocol scalability analysis . . . . . . . 14 14. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 14.1. Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 14.2. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Intellectual Property and Copyright Statements . . . . . . . . . . 21 Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 2] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 1. Terminology AODV: Ad-hoc On Demand Vector Routing DSDV: Destination Sequenced Distance Vector DSR: Dynamic Source Routing DYMO: Dynamic Mobile On-Demand MANET: Mobile Ad-hoc Networks MAC: Medium Access Control MPLS: Multiprotocol Label Switching MPR: Multipoint Relays MTU: Maximum Transmission Unit LSA: Link State Advertisement LSDB: Link State Database OLSR: Optimized Link State Routing ROLL: Routing in Low power and Lossy Networks TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access 2. Introduction Wireless is increasingly important to computer networking. As Moore's Law has reduced computer prices and form factors, networking includes not only servers and desktops, but laptops, palmtops, and cellphones. As computing device costs and sizes have shrunk, small wireless sensors, actuators, and smart objects have emerged as an important next step in inter-networking. The sheer number of the low-power networked devices means that they cannot depend on human intervention (e.g., adjusting position) for good networking: they must have routing protocols that enable them to self-organize into multihop networks. Energy is a fundamental challenge in these devices. Convenience and ease of use requires they be wireless and therefore battery powered. Correspondingly, low power operation is a key concern for this class of networked device. Cost points and energy limitations cause these Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 3] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 devices to have very limited resources: a few kB of RAM and a few MHz of CPU is typical. As energy efficiency does not improve with Moore's Law, these limitations are not temporary. This trend towards smaller, lower power, and more numerous devices has led to new low- power wireless link layers to support them. In practice, wireless networks observe much higher loss rates than wired ones do, and low- power wireless is no exception. Furthermore, many of these networks will include powered as well as energy constrained nodes. Nevertheless, for cost and scaling reasons, many of these powered devices will still have limited resources. These low power and lossy networks introduce constraints and requirements that other networks typically do not possess ([I-D.brandt-roll-home-routing-reqs] and [I-D.ietf-roll-indus-routing-reqs]). This document examines existing routing protocols and how well they can be applied to low power and lossy networks. It provides a basic framework with which to compare the costs and benefits of different protocol designs and examines existing protocols within this framework. From these observations it provides guidance on how existing solutions can be leveraged in future protocol design. 3. Suitability Summary In this section, we present five important requirements for routing in low power and lossy networks, and evaluate protocols against them. Our evaluation attempts to take a complicated and interrelated set of design decisions and trade-offs and condense them to a simple "pass", "fail", or "?". As with any simplification, there is a risk of removing some necessary nuance. However, we believe that being forced to take a position on whether or not these protocols are acceptable according to binary criterion will be constructive. We derive these metrics from existing documents that describe ROLL network application requirements. These metrics do not encompass all application requirements. Instead, they are a common set of routing protocol requirements that most applications domains share. Considering this very general and common set of requirements sets a minimal bar for a protocol to be generally applicable. If a protocol cannot meet even these minimalist criteria, then it cannot be used in several major ROLL application domains and so is unlikely to be a good candidate for further analysis and examination. Satisfying these minimal criteria is necessary but not sufficient: they do not represent the complete intersection of application requirements and applications introduce additional, more stringent requirements. But this simplified view provides a first cut of the applicability of existing protocols, and those that do satisfy them might be Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 4] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 reasonable candidates for further study. The five metrics are "table scalability", "loss response", "control cost", "link cost", and "node cost". For each of these, the value "pass" indicates that a given protocol has satisfactory performance according to the metric. The value "fail" indicates that the protocol does not have acceptable performance according to the metric, and that the RFC defining the protocol does not appear to contain sufficient flexibility to alter the protocol to do so. Finally, "?" indicates that an implementation could exhibit satisfactory performance while following the RFC, but that design considerations necessary to do so are not specified. 3.1. Formal Definitions To provide precise definitions of these metrics, we use formal big-O notation, where N refers to the number of nodes in the network, D refers to the number of unique destinations, and L refers to the size of a node's single-hop local neighborhood (the network density). We explain the derivation of each metric from application requirements in its corresponding section. 3.2. Table Scalability Scalability support for large networks of sensors is highlighted as a key requirement by the application requirements documents mentioned above, with size ranging from a minimum of 250 nodes ([I-D.brandt-roll-home-routing-reqs]) to very large networks ([I-D.dohler-roll-urban-routing-reqs]), and network depths of up to 20 hops ([I-D.ietf-roll-indus-routing-reqs]). Given that network information maintained at each node is stored in routing and neighbor tables, along with the constrained memory of nodes, necessitates bounds on the size of these tables. This metric examines whether routing tables scale within reasonable memory resources of low-power nodes. According to this metric, routing protocols that scale linearly with the size of the network or a node's neighborhood fail. Scaling with the size of the network prevents networks from growing to reasonable size, while scaling with the network density precludes dense deployments. However, as many low-power and lossy networks behave principally as data collection networks and principally communicate through routers to data collection points in the larger Internet, scaling with the number of such collection points is reasonable. Protocols whose state scales with the number of destinations pass. More precisely, routing table size scaling with O(N) or O(L) fails. A table that scales O(D) (assuming no N or L) passes. Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 5] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 3.3. Loss Response In low power and lossy networks, links routinely come and go due to being close to the SINR threshold. It is important that link churn not trigger unnecessary responses by the routing protocol. This point is stressed in all the application requirement documents, pointing to the need to localize response to link failures with no triggering of global network re-optimization, whether for reducing traffic or for maintaining low route convergence times ([I-D.brandt-roll-home-routing-reqs], [I-D.dohler-roll-urban-routing-reqs], and [I-D.ietf-roll-indus-routing-reqs]). A protocol which requires many link changes to propagate across the entire network fails. Protocols which constrain the scope of information propagation to only when they affect routes to active destinations, or to local neighborhoods, pass. More precisely, loss responses that require O(N) transmissions fail, while responses that can rely on O(1) local broadcasts or O(D) route updates pass. 3.4. Control Cost Battery-operated devices are a critical component of all three application spectrums, and as such special emphasis is placed on minimizing power consumption to achieve long battery lifetime, ([I-D.brandt-roll-home-routing-reqs]), with multi-year deployments being a common case ([I-D.ietf-roll-indus-routing-reqs]). In terms of routing structure, any proposed L2N routing protocol ought to support the autonomous organization and configuration of the network at the lowest possible energy cost ([I-D.dohler-roll-urban-routing-reqs]). All routing protocols must transmit additional data to detect neighbors, build routes, transmit routing tables, or otherwise conduct routing. As low-power wireless networks can have very low data rates, protocols which require a minimum control packet rate can have unbounded control overhead. This is particularly true for event-driven networks, which only report data when certain conditions are met. Regions of a network which never meet the condition can be forced to send control traffic even when there is no data to send. For these use cases, hard-coded timing constants are unacceptable, because they imply a prior knowledge of the expected data rate. If control traffic is uncorrelated with data traffic, a protocol fails according to Control Cost metric. Protocols which pass bound their control traffic rate to their data traffic. Protocols which Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 6] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 pass do not use resources to maintain unused state. More specifically, any protocol which requires fixed-rate periodic control packets in the absence of data traffic fails. 3.5. Link and Node Cost These two metrics specify how a protocol chooses routes for data packets to take through the network. Classical routing algorithms typically acknowledge the differing costs of paths and may use a shortest path algorithm to find paths. This is a requirement for low power networks, as links must be evaluated as part of an objective function across various metric types, such as minimizing latency and maximizing reliability ([I-D.ietf-roll-indus-routing-reqs]). However, in low power networks it is also desirable to account for the cost of routing through particular routers. Applications require node or parameter constrained routing, which takes into account node properties abd attributes such as power, memory, and battery life that dictate a router's willingness or ability to route other packets([I-D.brandt-roll-home-routing-reqs], [I-D.dohler-roll-urban-routing-reqs]). Node cost refers to the ability for a protocol to incorporate router properties into routing metrics and use node attributes for constraint-based routing. A "pass" indicates that the protocol contains a mechanism allowing these considerations to be considered when choosing routes. 4. Routing Protocol Taxonomy Routing protocols broadly fall into two classes: link-state and distance-vector. A router running a link-state protocol first establishes adjacency with its neighbors and then reliably floods the local topology information in the form of a Link State Advertisement packet. The collection of LSAs constitutes the Link State Database (LSDB) that represents the network topology, and routers synchronize their LSDBs. Thus each node in the network has a complete view of the network topology. Each router uses the LSDB to compute a routing table where each entry (reachable IP destination address) points to the next hop along the shortest path according to some metric. Link state protocols (such as OSPF and IS-IS) support the concept of area (called "level" for IS-IS) whereby all the routers in the same area share the same view (they have the same LSDB) and areas are interconnected by border routers according to specific rules that advertise IP prefix reachability between areas. Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 7] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 A distance vector protocol exchanges routing information rather than topological information. A router running a distance vector protocol exchanges information with its "neighbors" with which it has link layer connectivity. Tunneling and similar mechanisms can virtualize link layer connectivity to allow neighbors that are multiple layer 2 hops away. Rather than a map of the network topology from which each router can calculate routes, a distance vector protocol node has information on what routes its neighbors have. Each node's set of available routes is the union of its neighbors routes plus a route to itself. In a distance vector protocol, nodes may only advertise routes which are in use, enabling on-demand discovery. In comparison to link state protocols, distance vector protocols have the advantage of only requiring neighbor routing information, but also have corresponding limitations which protocols must address, such as routing loops, count to infinity, split horizon, and slow convergence times. Furthermore, routing constraints are difficult to enforce with distance vector protocols. Neighbor discovery is a critical component of any routing protocol. It enables a protocol to learn about which other nodes are nearby and which it can use as the next hop for routes. As neighbor discovery is a key component of many protocols, several general protocols and protocol mechanisms have been designed to support it. A protocol's neighbor set is defined by how many "hops" away the set reaches. For example, the 1-hop neighbor set of a node is all nodes it can directly communicate with at the link layer, while the 2-hop neighbor set is its own 1-hop neighbor set and the 1-hop neighbor sets of all of its 1-hop neighbors. Because nodes often have very limited resources for storing routing state, protocols cannot assume that they can store complete neighbor information. For example, a node with 4kB of RAM cannot store full neighbor state when it has 1000 other nodes nearby. This means that ROLL protocols must have mechanisms to decide which of many possible neighbors they monitor as routable next hops. For elements such as 2-hop neighborhoods, these decisions can have a significant impact on the topology that other nodes observe, and therefore may require intelligent logic to prevent effects such as network partitions. Protocols Today Wired networks draw from both approaches. OSPF or IS-IS, for example, are link-state protocols, while RIP is a distance-vector protocol. MANETs similarly draw from both approaches. OLSR is a link-state protocol, while AODV, DSDV, and DYMO are distance vector protocols. The general consensus in core networks is to use link state routing Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 8] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 protocols as IGPs for a number of reasons: in many cases having a complete network topology view is required to adequately compute the shortest path according to some metrics. For some applications such as MPLS Traffic Engineering it is even required to have the knowledge of the Traffic Engineering Database for constraint based routing. Furthermore link state protocols typically have superior convergence speeds (ability to find an alternate path in case of network element failure), are easier to debug and troubleshoot, and introduce less control packet overhead than distance vector protocols. In contrast, distance vector protocols are simpler, require less computation, and have smaller storage requirements. Most of these tradeoffs are similar in wireless networks, with one exception. Because wireless links can suffer from significant temporal variation, link state protocols can have higher traffic loads as topology changes must propagate globally, while in a distance vector protocol a node can make local routing decisions with no effect on the global routing topology. One major protocol, DSR, does not easily fit into one of these two classes. Although it is a distance vector protocol, DSR has several properties that make it differ from most other protocols in this class. We examine these differences in our discussion of DSR. The next two sections summarize several well established routing protocols. Later sections consider the properties of these protocol with respect to ROLL requirements. This table shows, based on the criteria described above, whether these protocols meet ROLL criteria. Protocol Table Loss Control Link Cost Node Cost OSPF fail fail fail pass fail OLSRv2 fail fail fail pass pass TBRPF fail pass fail pass ? RIP pass fail fail ? fail AODV pass fail pass fail fail DSDV pass fail fail ? fail DYMO[-low] pass fail pass ? ? DSR fail ? pass fail ? 5. Link State Protocols 5.1. OSPF OSPF (specified in [RFC2328] for IPv4 and in [RFC2740] for IPv6)) is a link state protocol designed for routing within an Internet Autonomous System (AS). OSPF provides the ability to divide a Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 9] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 network into areas, which can establish a routing hierarchy. The topology within an area is hidden from other areas and IP prefix reachability across areas (inter-area routing) is provided using summary LSAs. The hierarchy implies that there is a top-level routing area (the backbone area) which connects other areas. Areas may be connected to the back-bone area through a virtual link. OSPF maintains routing adjacencies by sending hello messages. OSPF calculates the shortest path to a node using link metrics (that may reflect the link bandwidth, propagation delay, ...). OSPF Traffic Engineering (OSPF-TE, [RFC3630]) extends OSPF to include information on reservable, unreserved, and available bandwidth. 5.2. OLSR Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) (see [RFC3626] and [I-D.ietf-manet-olsrv2]) is a link state routing protocol for wireless mesh networks. OLSR nodes flood route discovery packets throughout the entire network, such that each node has a map of the mesh topology. Because link variations can lead to heavy flooding traffic when using a link state approach, OLSR establishes a topology for minimizing this communication. Each node maintains a set of nodes called its Multipoint Relays (MPR), which is a subset of the one-hop neighbors whose connectivity covers the two-hop neighborhood. Each node that is an MPR maintains a set called its MPR selectors, which are nodes that have chosen it to be an MPR. OLSR uses these two sets to apply three optimizations. First, only MPRs generate link state information. Second, nodes can use MPRs to limit the set of nodes that forward link state packets. Third, an MPR, rather than advertise all of its links, can advertise only links to its MPR selectors. Together, these three optimizations can greatly reduce the control traffic in dense networks, as the number of MPRs should not increase significantly as a network becomes denser. OLSR selects routes based on hop counts, and assumes an underlying protocol that determines whether a link exists between two nodes. OLSR's constrained flooding allows it to quickly adapt to and propagate topology changes. OLSR is closely related to clustering algorithms in the wireless sensor networking literature, in which cluster heads are elected such that routing occurs over links between cluster heads and all other nodes are leafs that communicate to a cluster head. Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 10] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 5.3. TBRPF Topology Dissemination Based on Reverse Path Forwarding (see [RFC3684]) is another proactive link state protocol. TBRPF computes a source tree, which provides routes to all reachable nodes. It reduces control packet overhead by having nodes only transmit a subset of their source tree as well as by using differential updates. The major difference between TBRPF and OLSR is the routing data that nodes advertise and who chooses to aggregate information. In OLSR, nodes select neighbors to be MPRs and advertise their link state for them; in TBRPF, nodes elect themselves to advertise relevant link state based on whether it acts as a next hop. 6. Distance Vector protocols 6.1. RIP The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) (defined in [RFC2453]) predates OSPF. As it is a distance vector protocol, routing loops can occur and considerable work has been done to accelerate convergence since the initial RIP protocols were introduced. RIP measures route cost in terms of hops, and detects routing loops by observing a route cost approach infinity where "infinity" is referred to as a maximum number of hops. RIP is typically not appropriate for situations where routes need to be chosen based on real-time parameters such as measured delay, reliability, or load or when the network topology needs to be known for route computation. "Triggered RIP" (defined in [RFC2091]) was originally designed to support "on-demand" circuits. The aim of triggered RIP is to avoid systematically sending the routing database on regular intervals. Instead, triggered RIP sends the database when there is a routing update or a next hop adjacency change: once neighbors have exchanged their routing database, only incremental updates need to be sent. Because incremental updates cannot depend on periodic traffic to overcome loses, triggered RIP uses acknowledgment based mechanisms for reliable delivery. 6.2. DSDV Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing uses distance vectors to continuously maintain routes throughout a network. Unlike RIP, DSDV uses per-node sequence numbers to provide a total ordering on route information age in order to prevent loops. In DSDV, each node maintains a route to each other node. Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 11] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 6.3. Ad-hoc On Demand Vector Routing (AODV) AODV (specified in [RFC3561]) is a distance vector protocol intended for mobile ad-hoc networks. When one AODV node requires a route to another, it floods a request in the network to discover a route. A depth-scoped flooding process avoids discovery from expanding to the most distant regions of the network that are in the opposite direction of the destination. AODV chooses routes that have the minimum hop count. If an AODV route request reaches a node that has a route to the destination (this includes the destination itself), that node sends a reply along the reverse route. All nodes along the reverse route can cache the route. When routes break due to topology changes, AODV floods error messages and issues a new request. Because AODV is on- demand, it does not maintain routes to all nodes as DSDV does; instead, it only maintains routes for active nodes. When a link breaks, AODV issues a Route Error (RERR) and a new route request message (RREQ), with a higher sequence number so nodes do not respond from their route caches. These packets can flood the entire network, giving loss response a fail. 6.4. DYMO Dynamic Mobile On-Demand routing (DYMO) (([I-D.ietf-manet-dymo]) is an evolution of AODV. The basic functionality is the same, but it has different packet formats, handling rules, and supports path accumulation. Path accumulation allows a single DYMO route request to generate routes to all nodes along the route to that destination. Like AODV, DYMO uses hop counts as its routing metric, but links may have a cost >= 1, allowing DYMO to represent link costs. Like AODV, on link breaks DYMO issues a new route request message (RREQ), with a higher sequence number so nodes do not respond from their route caches. Correspondingly, a route request can flood the entire network. 6.5. DSR Dynamic Source Routing ([RFC4728]) is a distance vector protocol, but a DSR packet source explicitly specifies the route for each packet. Because the route is determined at a single place -- the source -- DSR does not require sequence numbers or other mechanisms to prevent routing loops, as there is no problem of inconsistent routing tables. Unlike DSDV, AODV, and DYMO, by pushing state into packet headers, DSR does not require per-destination routing state. Instead, a node originating packets only needs to store a spanning tree of the part of the network it is communicating with. Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 12] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 7. Neighbor Discovery A limit on maintained routing state (light footprint) prevents ROLL protocols from assuming they know all 1-hop, 2-hop, or N-hop neighbors. For this reason, while protocols such as MANET-NHDP ([I-D.ietf-manet-nhdp]) and IPv6's neighbor discovery ([RFC4861]) provide basic mechanisms for discovering link-layer neighbors, not all of their features are relevant. This section describes these two protocols, their capabilities, and how ROLL protocols could leverage them. 7.1. IPv6 Neighbor Discovery IPv6 neighbor discovery provides mechanisms for nodes to discover single-hop neighbors as well as routers that can forward packets past the local neighborhood. There is an implicit assumption that the delegation of whether a node is a router or not is static (e.g., based on a wired topology). The fact that all routers must respond to a Router Solicitation requires that the number of routers with a 1-hop neighborhood is small, or there will be a reply implosion. Furthermore, IPv6 neighbor discovery's support of address autoconfiguration assumes address provisioning, in that addresses reflect the underlying communication topology. IPv6 neighbor discovery does not consider asymmetric links. Nevertheless, it may be possible to extend and adapt IPv6's mechanisms to wireless in order to avoid response storms and implosions. 7.2. MANET-NHDP The MANET Neighborhood Discovery Protocol (MANET-NHDP) provides mechanisms for discovering a node's symmetric 2-hop neighborhood. It maintains information on discovered links, their interfaces, status, and neighbor sets. MANET-NHDP advertises a node's local link state; by listening to all of its 1-hop neighbor's advertisements, a node can compute its 2-hop neighborhood. MANET-NHDP link state advertisements can include a link quality metric. MANET-NHDP's node information base includes all interface addresses of each 1-hop neighbor: for low-power nodes, this state requirement can be difficult to support. 8. Security Issues TBD Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 13] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 9. Manageability Issues TBD 10. IANA Considerations This document includes no request to IANA. 11. Security Considerations TBD 12. Acknowledgements 13. Annex A - Routing protocol scalability analysis This aim of this Annex is to provide the details for the analysis routing scalability analysis. "OSPF" OSPF floods link state through a network. Each router must receive this complete link set. OSPF fails the table size criterion because it requires each router to discover each link in the network, for a total routing table size which is O(N * L). This also causes it to fail the control cost criterion, since this information must be propagated. Furthermore, changes in the link set require re-flooding the network link state even if the changed links were not being used. Since link state changes in wireless networks are often uncorrelated with data traffic and are instead caused by external (environmental) factors, this causes OSPF to fail both the control cost and loss response criteria. OSPF routers can impose policies on the use of links and can consider link properties (Type of Service), so receive a pass for link cost. However, there is no way to associate metrics with routers when computing paths, and so fails the node cost criteria. "OLSRv2" OLSRv2 is a proactive link state protocol, flooding this information through a set of multipoint relays (MPRs). Routing state includes 1-hop neighbor information for each node in the network, 1-hop and 2-hop information for neighbors, and a routing table, resulting in state proportional to network size and density (O(N*L + L^2)), and Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 14] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 failing the table scalability criteria. Unacceptable control traffic overhead arises from flooding and maintenance. HELLO messages are periodically broadcast local beacon messages, but TC messages spread topology information throughout the network (using MPRs). As such, control traffic is proportional to O(N^2). As L is bounded by N, this means control traffic is proportional to O(N). MPRs reduce this load to O(N^2 / L). As the number of MPRs is inversely proportional to the density of the network and L is bounded by N, this means control traffic is at best proportional to O(N), and fails the control cost metric. Furthermore, changes in the link set require re-flooding the network link state even if those links were not being used by routing, which fails the loss response metric. OLSR allows for specification of link quality, and also provides a 'Willingness' metric to symbolize node cost, giving it a pass for both those metrics. "TBRPF" As a link state protocol, TBRPF routing table size scales with network size, leading to table sizes which are O(N * L) when a node receives disjoint link sets from its neighbors. However, this causes the protocol to fail the table size criteria. The protocol's use of differential updates should allow both fast response time and incremental changes once the distributed database of links has been established. Differential updates are only used to reduce response time to changing network conditions, not to reduce the amount of topology information sent, since each node will periodically send their piece of the topology. As a result, TBRPF fails the control overhead criteria. However, its differential updates are triggered by a link failure do not immediately cause a global re-flooding of state, leading to a pass for loss response. TBRPF has a flexible neighbor management layer which enables it to incorporate various link metrics into its routing decision. As a result, it receives a pass for link cost. It also provides a mechanism whereby routers are able to advertise their "willingness to route." Although the RFC does not specify a policy for using these values, developing one could allow TBRPF to satisfy this requirement, leading to a ? for the node cost requirement. "RIP" RIP is a distance vector protocol, with all routers maintaining a route to all other routers, and as such table size being O(N). Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 15] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 However, if destinations are known apriori, table size can be reduced to O(D), resulting in a pass for table scalability. Each node broadcasts a beacon per period, and updates must be propagated by affected nodes, irrespective of data rate, failing the control cost metric. Loss triggers updates, only propagating if part of a best route, even if the route is not actively being used, resulting in a fail for loss response. RIP receives a ? for link cost, because while current implementations focus on hop count, any number can theoretically be used to advertise link quality. There is no concept of router quality, and so it receives a fail for the node cost criteria. "AODV" AODV table size is a function of the number of communicating pairs in the network, scaling with O(D). This is acceptable and so AODV passes the table size criteria. As an on-demand protocol, AODV does not generate any traffic until data is sent, and so control traffic is correlated with the data and so it receives a pass for control traffic. When a broken link is detected, AODV will use a precursor list maintained for each destination to inform downstream routers (with a RERR) of the topology change. This information is not sent as a flood, leading to an acceptable of traffic for a loss. Furthermore, the router encountering a broken link may initiate local repair via a scoped flood. However, link churn may also result in RERR messages being flooded to the entire network. Therefore, AODV receives a fail for loss response. AODV allows the source router to wait and collect a number of RREP messages before choosing which route is to be used. This allows that router to evaluate the link cost of the different alternatives, although it is not clear how this should be done. AODV fails the link cost requirement because it does not appear that that a design goal was to choose paths which are minimal under some metric. It fails the node cost requirement because there is no way for a router to indicate its [lack of] willingness to route while still adhering to the RFC. "DSDV" DSDV is another distance vector protocol, similar to RIP, with the only main difference being in the usage of destination-based sequence numbers to prevent routing loops. As such the following analysis applies, which is the same as RIP's. DSDV receives a pass for scalability because table size can be limited to O(D) if all destinations are known apriori. Control cost Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 16] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 is a fail, because periodic beaconing, irrespective of data rate, is required, with updates propagating throughout the network. Loss response is also a fail since although loss only results in propagation to routers that utilize that link in their routing tables, there is no mechanism for restricting this propagation to active routes, rather than all routes. Link cost is a ? since theoretically distance metrics other than hops could be used, but are not covered in the protocol description, and node cost is a fail as there is no provision for router quality. "DYMO/DYMO-low" The design of DYMO shares much with AODV, with some changes to remove precursor lists and compact various messages. Table size is somewhat smaller, including entries for neighboring DYMO routers and routes passing through the router. Control overhead has been reduced somewhat, and DYMO does not generate spurious RERRs; these messages are only generated when a forwarding failure occurs. Nevertheless, these RERRs can flood the entire network, imposing an O(N) cost. DYMO includes mechanisms to add additional routing information (potentially including router willingness), but does not define explicit policy mechanisms for choosing routers along a path. Its extensible packet format could allow router properties to be specified in headers, giving it a ? on node cost. Rather than rely solely on hopcount, DYMO allows links to have costs in the range of 1-65535, but does not specify how these might be used, giving it a ? on link cost. "DSR" DSR performs source routing of packets, discovering packets through a route discovery mechanism. Only table entries needed by the data are maintained, which is equivalent to the number of unique next hops needed to access all desired destinations. Control traffic is only initiated when a new route is being discovered, or when an existing route fails, and as such is proportional to the data rate. Loss does not trigger updates, unless the path is used. Routes are selected based on hop count, with no mechanism for differentiating between "routers". DSR fails the table criterion because it maintains a blacklist of neighbors with whom connectivity is not bidirectional: this scales with O(L). DSR receives a ? on the loss criterion because some of its mechanisms, such as automatic route shortening and route cache suggest that it may be able to meet the loss criterion, but exactly how these are implemented will affect its efficiency. DSR passes the control criterion because all control traffic is on-demand, and so is bound to data traffic rates. DSR fails the link cost criterion Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 17] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 because its source routes are advertised only in terms of hops, such that all advertised links are considered equivalent. DSR has a ? on the node cost criterion because sources decide on whom to send packets through, and nodes cannot announce their capabilities in this regard. However, a new route reply option could possibly achieve this goal. 14. References 14.1. Normative References [RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, March 1997. 14.2. Informative References [I-D.brandt-roll-home-routing-reqs] Brandt, A., "Home Automation Routing Requirement in Low Power and Lossy Networks", draft-brandt-roll-home-routing-reqs-01 (work in progress), May 2008. [I-D.dohler-roll-urban-routing-reqs] Dohler, M., Watteyne, T., Jacquenet, C., Madhusudan, G., and G. Chegaray, "Urban WSNs Routing Requirements in Low Power and Lossy Networks", draft-dohler-roll-urban-routing-reqs-01 (work in progress), April 2008. [I-D.ietf-manet-dymo] Chakeres, I. and C. Perkins, "Dynamic MANET On-demand (DYMO) Routing", draft-ietf-manet-dymo-14 (work in progress), June 2008. [I-D.ietf-manet-nhdp] Clausen, T., Dearlove, C., and J. Dean, "MANET Neighborhood Discovery Protocol (NHDP)", draft-ietf-manet-nhdp-07 (work in progress), July 2008. [I-D.ietf-manet-olsrv2] Clausen, T., Dearlove, C., and P. Jacquet, "The Optimized Link State Routing Protocol version 2", draft-ietf-manet-olsrv2-07 (work in progress), July 2008. [I-D.ietf-roll-indus-routing-reqs] Networks, D., Thubert, P., Dwars, S., and T. Phinney, "Industrial Routing Requirements in Low Power and Lossy Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 18] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 Networks", draft-ietf-roll-indus-routing-reqs-01 (work in progress), July 2008. [RFC2091] Meyer, G. and S. Sherry, "Triggered Extensions to RIP to Support Demand Circuits", RFC 2091, January 1997. [RFC2328] Moy, J., "OSPF Version 2", STD 54, RFC 2328, April 1998. [RFC2453] Malkin, G., "RIP Version 2", STD 56, RFC 2453, November 1998. [RFC2740] Coltun, R., Ferguson, D., and J. Moy, "OSPF for IPv6", RFC 2740, December 1999. [RFC3561] Perkins, C., Belding-Royer, E., and S. Das, "Ad hoc On- Demand Distance Vector (AODV) Routing", RFC 3561, July 2003. [RFC3626] Clausen, T. and P. Jacquet, "Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR)", RFC 3626, October 2003. [RFC3630] Katz, D., Kompella, K., and D. Yeung, "Traffic Engineering (TE) Extensions to OSPF Version 2", RFC 3630, September 2003. [RFC3684] Ogier, R., Templin, F., and M. Lewis, "Topology Dissemination Based on Reverse-Path Forwarding (TBRPF)", RFC 3684, February 2004. [RFC4728] Johnson, D., Hu, Y., and D. Maltz, "The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR) for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks for IPv4", RFC 4728, February 2007. [RFC4861] Narten, T., Nordmark, E., Simpson, W., and H. Soliman, "Neighbor Discovery for IP version 6 (IPv6)", RFC 4861, September 2007. Authors' Addresses Philip Levis Stanford University 358 Gates Hall, Stanford University Stanford, CA 94305-9030 USA Email: pal@cs.stanford.edu Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 19] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 Arsalan Tavakoli UC Berkeley Soda Hall, UC Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94707 USA Email: arsalan@eecs.berkeley.edu Stephen Dawson-Haggerty UC Berkeley Soda Hall, UC Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94707 USA Email: stevedh@cs.berkeley.edu Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 20] Internet-Draft draft-levis-roll-protocols-survey-02 August 2008 Full Copyright Statement Copyright (C) The IETF Trust (2008). 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The IETF invites any interested party to bring to its attention any copyrights, patents or patent applications, or other proprietary rights that may cover technology that may be required to implement this standard. Please address the information to the IETF at ietf-ipr@ietf.org. Levis, et al. Expires February 6, 2009 [Page 21]